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The present literature review, first of all, considers the definitions of attitude and attitudes towards computers, it also sheds light on the concept of attitudes, attitudes and language learning, teachers attitudes towards the computers in EFL instruction, Arab teachers attitudes towards the computer in EFL instruction, students attitudes towards computer and the differences between teachers and students attitude towards the use of a computer.
The Concept of Attitude
In order to trace the development and essence of the concept of attitude, it is necessary to resort to up-to-date sources on Psychology and Sociology that give an account of the evolution of the concept of attitude in psychological and sociological research. As a great number of researchers of the twentieth century were occupied with research devoted to the concept of attitude, it is problematic and unnecessary to give a full account of their works and finings. Thus, the present section is the summary of the research of the concept of attitude as presented by Deutcher, Pestello & Pestello (1993) and Martin & Briggs (1986). The choice of these sources was determined by their specialization: Psychology and Educational Instruction.
The term attitude represents different meanings depending on the fields where it is used: Psychology, Sociology, Social Psychology, etc. Deutscer et al. (1993) mention Herbert Spencer (1862) among the first scientists who mentioned the concept of attitude in the research. Thomas and Znaniecki (1918) offered a definition of Social Psychology as the science devoted to the study of attitudes. The researchers of the first part of the twentieth century, for instance, Bain (1928: 940) treated attitudes as the relatively stable overt behavior of a person which affects his status . Thurstone (1946: 39) offered one more definition of attitudes as the intensity of positive or negative effect for or against a psychological object. A psychological object is any symbol, person, phrase, slogan, or idea toward which people can differ as regards positive or negative effect . Martin & Briggs (1986: 101) also offer the definition of attitude by Murphy, Murphy & Newcomb (1937): Attitude is primarily a way of being set toward or against certain things . The same authors give a definition of attitude as an enduring, learned predisposition to behave in a consistent way toward a given class or objects; a persistent mental state of readiness to react to a class of objects as they are conceived to be (English & English, 1958, as cited in Martin & Briggs 1986: 101).
However, there were the scientists who considered that attitude failed to meet the requirements of a scientific concept (Blumer, 1955, as cited in Deutscher et al. 1993: 193). Deutscher et al. (1993: 193) agree with Blumer that the concept of attitude is an ambiguous and omnibus term, and they also claim that there is no cumulative building of knowledge on what an attitude is .
Still, it is necessary to give an account of the research of the concept of attitude during the second part of the twentieth century.
Mantel-Bromely (1995) states that attitude has both emotional and evaluative nature and it indicates the level of ones liking or disliking a certain object. Besides, Mante-Bromley (1995) states that a number of attitude theorists (Rajeski, 1990; Zimbardo & Leippe, 1991) in psychology offer a three-component structure of attitude: affect (the degree of liking of the object the person has); cognition (that means the persons knowledge about the attitudinal object); behavior ( reactions and intentions regarding the object ) (Mantle-Bromley 1995: 373).
Research on the concept of attitude is still underway. Among the most modern researchers of attitudes, it is necessary to mention Palaigeorgiou, Siozoz, Konstantakis, & Tsoukalas (2005: 331) who defined attitudes as a positive or negative sentiment, or mental state, that is learned and organized through experience and that exercises a discrete influence on the affective and conative responses of an individual toward some other individual, object or event?
Definition of Attitude
The present section offers two basic definitions that will lie on the basis of our research.
The first is the definition of Palaigeorgiou, Siozos, Konstantakis, Tsoukalas (2005: 39) stating that attitude is a positive or negative sentiment or mental state, that is learned and organized through experience and that exercises a discrete influence on the affective and conative responses of an individual toward some other individual, object or event .
The second is the definition of attitudes toward computers : Smith, Caputi, & Rawstorne (2000: 61) define attitudes toward computers as a persons general evaluation or feeling of favourableness or unfavourableness toward computer technologies (i.e. attitude toward objects) and specific computer-related activities (i.e. attitudes toward ba ehavior) (p. 61). The choice of these particular definitions has been determined by the fact that they offea r versatile presentation of the concepts they denote and the wordings are applicable to the present research. The definitions are up to date and cover all aspects of the concepts. At the same time, the wordings are clear and concise.
Attitude and Language Learning
The middle of the sixties of the twentieth century was the time when the studies of attitude in language learning started. (Smith, 1971). Smith (1971: 82) mentioned that by the midsixties disquieting feelings began to emerge on the pages of all the foreign language journals. Something was amiss. Something had been overlooked, an important factor that we are only now beginning to investigate: attitudes . Attitude is considered one of the affective variables that have a great role in second or foreign language acquisition (Ganschow, Sparks, Anderson, Javorshy, Skinner, & Patton, 1994). The questioning of the role of affective factors in language learning turned out to be a possible answer to the set question. The question concerns the following paradox: how some people can learn a second language perfectly and proficiently while another learner, though the same opportunities and setting to study language available for them, fail their studies since all other answers attributed to teaching methods, knack, or pedagogical matters have failed (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Gardner and Lambert (1995) were the pioneers in the field as these researchers were those who started the investigation of affective variables and brought them to the fore of research (Bacon & Finnemann, 1990).
The great importance of attitudes in language learning and acquisition has been emphasized by a number of other researchers (Ellis, 1985; Gardner & Lambert, 1972; Merisuo-Storm, 2006; Savigon, 1976). Savigon (1976), for instance, treated attitude as the most valuable factor in second language learning. Attitude plays an important role in the formation of motivation toward language learning itself; this means that attitude has an important connection with other affective factors (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). The same researchers, Gardner & Lambert (1972: 134), mentioned that the learners motivation for language study, it follows, would be determined by his attitudes and readiness to identify and by his orientation to the whole process of learning a foreign language . The same idea was supported by Merisuo-Storm (2006), who established a direct connection between motivation in language learning and stable attitudes in the mind of a learner. There was one more valuable opinion by a researcher, who emphasized vital impotence of attitudes and motivation as the factors that can help to determine and assess the level of proficiency of language learners (Ellis, 1985).
As stated by Margaret & Gardner (2003: 173), attitudes toward learning situations, are connected with the individuals reaction to anything associated with the immediate context in which the language is taught . Masgoret and Garden (2003) in their meta-analysis study explored the relationship between second language achievement to five attitudinal or motivational variables adapted from Gardeners previous model on social education in comparison with the factors of availability of language in community and the age of learners to check if they have any moderating effect. The five variables under study were: integrativeness, attitudes towards the learning situations, motivation, integrative orientation, and instrumental integration. The study was based on 75 independent samples comprising 10489 individuals. 56 samples came from published sources while 19 were from unpublished articles and dissertations. The study results based on three hypotheses categorised three relationships under study: first, it showed that the 5 variables under study were found to be positively related to achievement in a second language learning. Second, it has been observed that motivation has a higher correlation in relation to second language achievement in contrast with the other variables. Finally, the results indicated that neither the availability of language in the immediate environment nor the age of the learners moderated language learning.
Success is greatly determined by attitudes toward the language learning environment. For instance, Merisuo-Storm (2006: 228) mentioned that negative attitudes towards language learning can reduce learners motivation and harm language learning, whereas positive attitudes can do the opposite . Lin & Miller (2005: 324) stated that We may wish to obtain measures of students attitudes toward certain classroom activities, the textbook, laboratory experience, or our own instruction so that needed adjustments can be made . The importance of information about students attitudes for educators was mentioned by Oxford (2001). Also, Mantle-Bromley (1995: 373) stated that attitudes influence the efforts that students expend to learn another language, then language teachers need a clear understanding of attitudes and attitude-change theory in order to address these issues in the classroom . Since this is the first time attitude change theory is mentioned in the present review, it is necessary to tackle this term. The theory, in fact, can be illustrated by its main hypothesis that says that the behaviour of potential persuaded or recipients is constrained or controlled by the attitudes towards the various aspects of certain object (Steinberg, 2000: 37). Thus, the investigation of students attitudes would help educators figure out the learners, improve their teaching methods, probably, bringing positive changes and modifications to the course syllabus on the whole.
It is necessary to tackle the Monitor Theory of Krashen as it is a valuable theory for second language acquisition that emphasizes motivation that is created by positive attitudes of a learner towards the knowledge and its acquisition. The theory presents particular interest since it is greatly appreciated and criticised a lot at the same time. For instance, Omaggio-Hadley (1993) questions the propriety of the authors strict distinction between learning and acquisition and proves that the monitor fails to work as prescribed. The theory suggests that the affective filter in language acquisition has had a large impact on the role that affective factors play in language acquisition (Bacon & Finnemann, 1990). The hypothesis of Affective Filter by Krashen (1987) deserves some more attention as it is related to students attitudes in the form of affective variables and successful language acquisition. Krasher (1987: 31) states that the Affective Filter hypothesis reflects the relationship between affective variables and the process of second language acquisition by positing that acquirers vary with according to the strength of their affective filters. Those learners whose attitudes are not optimal and adequate for second language acquisition will not only tend to seek less input, but they will also have a high or strong Affective Filter. This means that even if they understand the message, the input will not reach the part of the brain that is responsible for language acquisition, or the language acquisition device. Krasher (1987: 31) claims that those learners who have attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition will not only seek and get more input, they will also have a lower or weaker filter that will make them more open to the input that will be able to get deeper . Thus, the value of the studied theory is in its establishment of the connection between affective factor and language acquisition.
Studies on Attitudes of Teachers towards CALL
Training appears to be a crucial issue which impacts on EFL teachers attitudes to CALL/computers. The present subsection shows the importance of specialized training of pre-service and in-service teachers that is aimed at the improvement of their computer literacy can influence their professional ability to use computer technologies in the educational process successfully.
A research conducted by Kilic (2001: 62) analyzes the influence of the use of telecommunication technologies on pre-service teachers attitudes towards computers and their attitudes towards communicating on computers at Indiana University in the fall semester of 1998-1999 academic years at the level of Elementary Science Methods Course. All students from this course were divided into two groups with group A (consisting of 43 students) where the use of communication technologies was integrated; and group B (consisting of 49 students) where telecommunication technologies were not applied. They were asked to respond to a survey adapted from Mitra (1998) administered at the beginning and at the end of the semester by means of pre-test and post-test of the students attitudes towards computer technologies. The survey tested two groups on the basis of two subscales: attitudes towards computer subscale (including eight items: attitudes, feelings of being comfortable, apprehensive, or neutral while using computers) and the attitudes towards communicating on computers subscale. The findings of the research show that the use of telecommunication technologies in this study did not influence students attitudes towards computers and their attitudes towards computer-based communication. The studied groups had demonstrated positive attitude towards computers and communicating on computers before the survey and the results remained approximately the same after the survey. The value of this research is in the fact that though it does not offer dramatic changes of students attitudes, absence of results is the best result in this particular case. The survey shows that it is possible to find a balance and harmony between personal and educational use of computer technologies by students.
Yildirims (2000) qualitative as well as a quantitative study was based on the assumption that positive attitudes towards computers and an increase in computer use was a direct result of increased computer training. The researcher analyzed the effects of a computer literacy course on pre-service and in-service teachers attitudes at California State University. The survey also had a goal of examining the changes of attitudes resulting from participation in educational computing class aid to investigate the factors maximizing teachers computer use. For the sake of this study, a computer competency survey was distributed among 114 participants (83 females, 31 males) divided into three groups: novice (group 1), intermediate (group 2) and competent (group 3) according to their level of computer literacy. The assessed sub skills included the following: word processing, presentation of software use, web browsing, telecommunications use, educational software use, spread sheet use, database management, and desktop publishing. In addition, the study was performed according to three types of attitudes towards computer technologies: anxiety, confidence and liking, following Loyd and Gressard (1984). The data for the study were collected through a pre-test, post-test, and a follow-up study. The results of the pre-test were analyzed using MANOVA, which showed that the competent members of the above mentioned group 3 demonstrated significantly higher positive attitude, more confidence and less anxiety than members of groups 1(novice) and 2 (intermediate).
The results of the post-test indicated that group 1 had as much of a positive attitude, less anxiety and more confidence as teachers in group 2 and group 3. This can be explained by the fact that teachers of group 1 gained more from the course in terms of increasing confidence, reducing anxiety and improving attitudes towards computers. The practical value of the analyzed study is in the fact that it demonstrates the importance of educational computing class aid for the improvement of positive attitudes of pre-service and in-servicer teachers towards the general use of computers that can be successfully applied for professional purposes.
Kenzek, Christensen and Rices (1997) study the aims at measuring attitudinal changes that 9 groups of 118 subjects ranging from novice teachers to teachers having little computer knowledge experienced during their 6 weekly technology training sessions that took place at Texas public school district during 1995-1996 on Macintosh computers. TAQ or teachers attitudes towards computers was used to collect data at two levels: 1) by completing both pre-test and post-test questionnaires, 2) by providing further information matching their responses in pre-tests and post-tests. On the whole, the two levels contained about 284 items (e.g. included in CAS, CASL, CUQ, ATCS, etc.). The data were analysed using a 32 Likert scales and Semantic Differential subscales, which were the scales determining the value of an object, quality, etc. in comparison with other object or from the point of view of contrasting concepts (for instance, good and bad). The data were finally categorised into 8 factors similar to Gardner, Discenza and Dukes (1993) study and many others. The overall results showed that teachers under technology training reduced their anxieties about computers use and their expectations about the usefulness of information technology increased. Enjoyment and liking measures also rose to positive.
Albirinis (2004) descriptive exploratory dissertation investigates quantitatively and qualitatively the attitudes of EFL teachers towards their use of ICT in education in a Syrian high school in Hims during 2003-2004. The researcher also studied the relationship between the attitudes of the above mentioned subjects and the following five variables: computer attributes, cultural perceptions, computer competence, computer access and demographic information of the subjects from a sample size of 887, selecting randomly a sample size of 326. This study is based on Rogers (1983) Diffusion of Innovations and Ajzen and Fishbiens (1980) theory of reasoned action , and the choice of the theoretical background for Albirinis research seems useful for our study as it shows the way how theory impacts research design. Thus, Rogers (1983: 5) defines diffusion as the process by which an innovation is communicated though certain channels over time among the members of a social system . Since Rogers (1983) singles out such central elements of diffusion process as communication channels and social system, his theoretical data can become useful for our research. As for Ajzen and Fishbeins Theory of Reasoned Action, it can also become a useful theoretical ground for practical research. For instance, Ajzen & Fishbein (1980) single out two factors that help to explain behaviour (personal factor and social influence). In other sources analyzed in this review (Shashsaani, 1997; Bush, 1995), practical support of Ajzen and Fisgbeins theory could be found. Thus, the Theory of Reasoned Action can be valuable for our research as well.
Albirini collected the data in two stages using a survey questionnaire and a telephonic interview. The second instrument seems to be interesting in terms of its originality. The questionnaire on computer and computer related techniques in education was distributed to a total of 326 teachers and a response of 98.6% was obtained from 320 respondents. A semi-structured interview from information rich population of 15 teachers (those who had demonstrated intense responses on the following variables: computer competence, computer access, and computer training) followed the survey to seek explanations for attitudinal motivation. The result showed positive attitude with a significant relationship between teachers positive attitude and the variables under study. The participants demonstrated an overall positive attitude towards ICT and its use in education and had positive perceptions about it. They were, however, neutral towards the cultural relevance of computers in Syrian society in general and in schools particularly. Observations of low levels of training in computers, their access and use were significant with implications for more demand of these factors. The relationship between teachers attitude to ICT and the independent variables was also noticed, with first three variables having a stronger value of computer attitudes.
Al-Asmari (2005) applied a similar methodology to Albirini, but he studied a different aspect of computer use in education. His work primarily investigates the use of the Internet by the EFL teachers at Saudi Arabian colleges of technology situated in Riyadh, Abba, Jeddah and Dammam during the academic year of 2004-20055. The research also looks into the relationship existing between teachers use of the Internet and a set of five variables: personal attributes of teachers, the accessibility of the Internet, teachers perceived expertise in computer use and the Internet, and the use of the Internet as a tool for instructions. He also applied Rogers (1995) model of Diffusion of Innovations and applied both quantitative and qualitative methods to collect data. Such popularity of Rogers model proves its usefulness for such a type of research on attitude. Thus, a questionnaire and a telephonic interview were used to collect data from a sample of 203 EFL teachers over a period of four months. A response rate of 91.1% was obtained through personal contact with respondents. Later, a 10-20 minute interview was arranged telephonically from 15 out of 84 teachers (51%) and it was audio-tapped. The interview was based on three questions based on the need for advocacy of the Internet, factors limiting the use of the Internet and the proper use of the Internet for EFL instructions. An SPSS 12 analysis of the data showed teachers positive inclination towards the use of the Internet in educational instructions. A very strong relationship was also observed between teachers use of the Internet and independent variables mentioned above. The follow-up interview results were also used to comment on observations obtained from the questionnaire and positive attitudes towards the use of the Internet in educational instructions were observed. This was, in turn, attributed to the advantages of the Internet use, like time saving, improving quality and quantity with easy storage and retrieval etc, thus implying its use in educational instruction. The presence of positive attitudes of teachers towards the use of the Internet is a valuable finding since other studies reviewed in this paper mainly tackle the use of software, not the Internet. Due to Al-Asmari, a fuller picture of attitudes of teachers towards technologies and technology based education is created.
Afshari, Bakar, Luang, Samah, & Fooi (2009) reviewed the pedagogical, psychological and cognitive factors (evaluation, analysis of ICT, etc.) influencing teachers decision to use ICT in the classroom. They also suggested a model for the integration of technology into teacher training programmes as after Ten Brummelhuis. Thus, the study has practical value. They categorised the factors affecting teachers use of ICT into two main types: non-manipulative (which cannot be directly affected towards any change ,e.g. age, teaching experience, computer experience or governmental policies, etc.) school and teacher factors and manipulative factors (e.g. attitudes and beliefs or perceptions, and even knowledge and skills). This review of previous studies done by Afshari et al. (2009) showed the interrelation of these two types of factors. To make the integration of technology into educational process successful, a need of identifying factors, having a plan and vision are emphasized. This can be achieved by means of individual support, intellectual stimulus, working to achieve group goals that should be provided by principals of the schools. Schools should also take their entire community into confidence and should utilise their knowledge and skills for a successful integration of information technology and computers in educational system. After the implementation of ICT in teacher training programmes, teachers should continuously be updated with the current demands in the field through pre-service as well as in-service courses. Thus, the value of the research is that it not only analyzes the factors influencing teachers and their attitudes towards ICT, but it gives practical advice on the improvement of the situation. One more merit of the study that deserves mentioning is the role of principals as active agents, supporters, and providers of ICT at their schools. Thus, the role of principals in the formation of attitudes of teachers towards CALL should be also analyzed in our research.
Studies on Students Attitudes towards CALL
Ayres (2002) in his empirical study examined students attitudes towards the use of computers assisted language learning (CALL), their perceived view of its relevancy to their course study. The author analyzes students perception of CALL as a competitor with the teacher and the links between perceived usefulness of CALL and the students level of computer literacy, language level and age at UNITEC school of English and applied linguistics in (2000). A total of 157 non-native speakers undergraduates coming from 27 different nationalities were related to respond to a questionnaire that was based on statements obtaining information about learners views of how useful they viewed the three software used and how useful they thought time spent in laboratory was? The results were analysed using SPSS and Chi-square. The results showed that the learners appreciated and valued computer assisted language learning and that the use of CALL with existing programmes of study ranked highly by the learners. High percentage of 80%, 77% and 60% found CALL relevant to their needs, a source of useful information and demanded more use of CALL respectively. In short, the study proved high face validity for CALL in this context. The merit of Ayres study is in the fact that it is a strong argument for the more frequent use of CALL in language courses.
Bulut and Abu Seileeks (2006) work on the analysis of learners attitude toward CALL and its connection with the development of four basic language skills (Listening, Speaking, Writing, and Reading). The main merit of this study is its uniqueness from the point of view of its focus on the relationship between students attitudes towards CALL and the performance of their particular language skill. The study differs from the existing research that mainly focuses on the analysis of the opinion of students thus being one-sided. The study conducted by Bulut and Abu Seileek is a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods of research based in the context of The Department of English Language and Linguistics at King Saud University in KSA. The data for this study were collected by means of the use of a five-point Likert scale attitude questionnaire for only one of the skills and an achievement test for that particular language skills from 112 students who participated in the course during the first Semester of the academic year 2005-2006. The overall results of the study indicated that the integration of CALL into the curriculum for teaching basic language skills was greatly appreciated and approved by the participants. As for the basic language skills and students attitude towards them in terms of CALL application, Listening and Writing appeared to be favoured by students in comparison with Speaking and Reading. Such a result of the study is of great interest since its further analysis and study can offer the ways of improvement of students attitude towards CALL and its use for the development of two language skills that are the least popular in this relation, Speaking and Reading. Results from students attitudes toward CALL for specific language skills with their relationship to the progress in the development of these skills, however, did not yield any significant results. Bulut and Abu Seileek was also emphasize that CALL experience has its own idiosyncrasies and its results are dependent upon so many contextual and even personal attributes, such as individual perception of CALL as luxury. On considering the value of theoretical findings of the research, it is necessary to tackle the software used in the process of investigation. In fact, a wide range of software was used for the study: electronic dictionaries, electronic books with CD-ROMs, word processors, computer based exercises (for instance, multiple choice, filling of the gaps). The weak point of the study is absence of concrete examples of software used that is justified by the authors statement that the research is not aimed at the study of software. Though it is really so, the emphasis on the software could have helped in the analysis of the preference given to Listening and Reading in CALL.
Another qualitative and quantitative study conducted by Lin (2003) on the attitudes of EFL learners towards the integration and application of multimedia into a language learning programme provides an initial investigation of the topic of integration of technology into language learning classroom. The setting of the study was Wenzao Ursuline College of Language in Taiwan, where the researcher surveyed 46 first year junior college students doing English listening and writing courses. Formal language class with computer was something of a novelty for the subjects. These participants were made to learn English writing and listening through dicto-composition (using ALELA Website, official website of Lin that is meant for teachers and students and was used as the main instruction tool), story writing, story recording, and internet surfing. The survey was conducted on the basis of a questionnaire with 5-point Likert scale. The regular language lab and the multimedia language lab were the materials of this study as the author claims (Lin, 2003). Still, the wording seems to be controversial here, since labs cannot be considered to be materials, probably, the author should have used the labs provided context for the study. The SPSS was used for the quantitative analysis of the collected data. The nontrivial results of this study offered that it would be reasonable to integrate multimedia in the curriculum of teenage language learners as well. This is one of the merits if the analyzed work as it opens new horizons for investigation of students attitudes towards CALL and their academic progress connected with it. Also, Lin states that the subjects of the study have found technology-enhanced motivation which helped them accomplish their tasks. This motivation was created by such types of multimedia tasks as recording of the stories, sending readings via email, and surfing the given website, ALELA. Taking into account that all the tasks were absolutely new for the subjects and they had no prior experience of doing such tasks, but mainly succeeded in them, it is possible to state the study was an effective motivator for students and their perception of CALL.
Almakhlafi (2006) has investigated the effectiveness of CALL for EFL learning of elementary-prep school students in the United Arab Emirates. A pre-test and post-test experiments
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